Leather Upholstery Fine leather upholstery used to be found in the dens and living rooms of only the very wealthy. The category was characterized by heavy, traditional styles and the use of strong colors such as burgundy, oxblood, burnt orange, rust, walnut, tortoise, navy and blackberry. These leathers generally had heavily glazed, shiny finishes. Massive, traditional chesterfields, tufted wing chairs, traditional saddlearm and double bustle pub sofas characterized leather upholstered furniture styles. Today, due to advances in tanning technology and style innovations, sales of furniture upholstered with leather covers has grown at tremendous pace. Contemporary styled leather upholstery has emerged as a strong selling category with broad consumer appeal. Not only has the styling of upholstered pieces changed, the leather used to cover contemporary pieces, now comes in a wide variety of designer colors and is generally soft, pliable and comfortable. The way leather is applied to frames has also changed. Leather is now gathered, pleated and draped in much the same way as fabric covers. Leather History Like stone, wood and wool, leather is a natural product. It has been a prized commodity throughout history. All of the earlier Renaissance styles, particularly the Spanish and English favored leather upholstery. Techniques for embossing, tooling, painting and gilding leather were disseminated by Spanish craftsmen in the 16th and 17th centuries. Throughout this period, all types of furniture were covered with leather and studded with decorative nail-head patterns. In the 18th century, the art of preserving hides and tanning them into leather had become an old, respected trade. The tanning process took almost a year and was completed by coating the hides with oil and grease, then scraping and treading on them. Oxhide and calf skins were a favorite in the late Louis XIV styles and fine goat leather was often used by Chippendale and subsequent designers. Then, as today, cattle hides were the major leather source because of their availability, strength and hide size. Features and Benefits Leather has properties which make it superior to other upholstery materials. Consider the following: Leather outlasts fabric covering, having an exceptionally long useful life, usually 4 to 5 times longer than fabric. It will not tear and is 4 to 5 times as strong as other upholstery materials -- even along the seam lines. Colors are absorbed by the leather and will not rub off. It is fire resistant and emits no toxic fumes, even when exposed to intense heat. Modern leather does not crack or peel. It stretches and retains its shape without sagging. It "breathes", assumes body temperature rapidly and is instantaneously comfortable. It resists heat and sun damage. Leather is a practical material, ideal for busy lifestyles. No special solvents or cleaners and no lengthy or expensive procedures are necessary for its care. Leather ages well. It will not wear like fabric covers. Instead, fine leather acquires a "patina" and may become more supple with age. Quality Leather Leather is made from animal hides that are converted through a many step process which preserves, softens, beautifies and protects the finished product. Only a small percentage of hides are used to remake upholstery leathers which must have large sections that are free from serious blemishes. Whereas it takes only a small piece of leather to make a good shoe... a sofa cushion requires a large panel of high quality. It is important to understand the differences between the basic types of upholstery leathers, because the kind of leather used on an upholstered piece greatly affects its cost, wearability and beauty. Although this terminology many seem confusing at first, it is actually very straightforward. As part of the involved upholstery leather preparation process, suitable animal hides are split into a top layer (the one which had hair on it) and a thick lower layer. The top layer, also called top grain, can either be processed into full grain leather which is not buffed and sanded; or into corrected grain leather that has had the surface markings altered by buffing and sanding. Generally, leather that has too many surface imperfections (too much character) will require correction. Full grain leather, is considered to be of greater beauty and higher quality than corrected grain leather, and so commands a higher price. The lower layer may then be further split and processed into suede split or coated split leather. Coated split leather is somewhat stiffer and less durable than top grain leather. It is sometimes used to cover upholstered sides and backs that do not need to flex and move much. Consumer Expectations Many American consumers expect leather to be flawless; to look and wear like vinyl, but to feel soft and supple. This view is largely inconsistent with the reality of leather. Even the best quality leather has flaws and natural markings. These subtle markings on the top grain layer are analogous to fingerprints. They distinguish genuine leather from man-made matertals. Grain Correction The reason why some top grain leather is corrected, is to minimize the appearance of the gross surface imperfections which many consumers find objectionable. This buffing/sanding process makes the leather more uniform. Natural looking patterned effects can be re-introduced by coating the leather with layers of pigment finish and embossing it under heat or high pressure. This process can smooth the grain or produce unique patterned effects (ostrich, alligator, lizard, etc.). Tanning Tanning is the process that turns an animal hide into leather. It preserves the hide, makes it softer, more pliable and durable. Virtually all of the leather produced today has been tanned with a chromium tanning process which is a type of mineral tanning. You may remember leather, that after several decades of use cracked, eventually revealing reddish, rotted leather underneath the pigmented finish. This leather was most likely vegetable tanned. Actually, the durability of chrome tanned and vegetable tnned leather is comparable, however, chrome tanned leather is less susceptible to this problem of red rot. With normal use and care, modern chromium tanning techniques produce leather upholstery that can last several decades. Dyeing and Finishing Tanned leather is first colored with a penetrating dye. The dye permeates the surface of the hide giving it color but not covering over natural markings. The leather can then be finished in one or more coating operations, with clear or pigmented finishes that do not penetrate the surface. These final finishes provide abrasion and stain resistance as well as color enhancement. Generally, the more surface finish a leather has, the stiffer (boardier) it becomes, but tanning formula and hide quality also affect leather stiffness. Aniline dye in common industry usage, refers to any clear dye that penetrates into the leather, coloring it, but not coating its surface with pigment. Virtually all upholstery leathers are initially treated with a penetrating aniline dye which allows the natural grain to show through. The amount of dye used in leather production, depends on the extent to which the dye has penetrated the leather. The dyeing of leather can be controlled by the manufacturer to either fully or partially penetrate it. Leather that has been fully penetrated with dye is known as fully struck through leather. If it has only been superficially dyed (only the flesh and grain surfaces penetrated), it is called partially struck through. For obvious reasons, leather whose cut edges will be exposed in the finished upholstered piece must have the dye fully struck through, but normal wear will not expose the interior of partially struck through leather. Types of Leather The three most commonly available basic types of leather are pure aniline, semi-aniline and protected aniline leather. Pure aniline leather, sometimes called aniline leather, aniline finish leather or premium select leather is a product that has a clear protective coating but no applied pigmented surface coating (finish). This is the best quality and most expensive leather. It is made from hides having a minimum of natural markings which have not needed to be grain corrected, embossed, or coated with pigment. This leather may receive a clear protective coating, but not a pigmented coating. Natural characteristics of the hide show through and the surface is soft and supple. Moderate color variations are normal and these unpigmented leathers tend to develop a rich patina with age. Only a small percentage of hides are good enough to be converted into pure aniline leather. Semi-aniline leather (aniline plus 1eather) has not as some believe had less aniline dye used in its manufacture than leather described simply, as aniline leather, pure aniline leather or aniline finished. The term semi-aniline leather describes full grain leather which contains only a small amount of surface coating (finish); a premium product which allows most of the natural character of the leather to show through. It is, therefore, misleading to describe a heavily finished or protected leather as being semi-aniline dyed. Care should be exercised in purchasing delicate semi-aniline leathers for high traffic/high wear areas. If a light colored pigmented finish should wear off through abrasion or vigorous cleaning, it may expose a neutral or contrasting color back. Protected aniline leather is less expensive and more common than pure aniline or semi-aniline leather. Its coloration is more consistent and because it has been coated with protective pigments, the leather's natural markings are less noticeable. Protected leather is more heavily pigmented than semi-aniline leather and is actually easier to clean than pure aniline leather because surface pigments repel water and stains... standing up well to heavy use. Leather Care Cleaning: Part of the reason why consumers like leather is because it is easy to care for. It is not, however, indestructible. In general, the more heavily finished a leather surface is, the more resistant it is to spills and stains. Untreated leather absorbs and is easily stained by oils. It can also be harmed by abrasive cleaners, powdered products and organic solvents. Soap and water is good for routine cleaning, but many commercially available leather cleaners also work. The latter often contain lubricating materials which are intended to keep leather supple. Really dirty leather may require the use of a mild detergent solution or professional cleaning, but care should be taken because some detergent solutions may not be pH balanced or contain compounds that could harm the leather. Always follow the manufacturer's cleaning instructions and test any cleaner on an inconspicuous area first. It is also a good idea to damp wipe rather than soak the leather with water. Pets and Placement: Some pets love to chew on leather, urinate on it and scratch it. Consumers who suspect that their pets may damage their leather upholstery may want to invest in a protective finish, and avoid especially delicate leather covers. Placement out of direct sunlight, or near radiators which many dry out the leather is also recommended. Normal Wear and Colorfastness: Consumers who anticipate that their sofa will see heavy or consistent use and are worried about dirt, stains and wear, might be well advised to purchase a sofa that is darker in color and has a heavier finish coat. More heavily finished leathers will maintain their original looks longer, but tend to be stiffer and show less natural character. Since heavily pigmented finish coats are often used to cover up less desirable leather, they will also tend to be used in less expensive upholstery applications. Although a deep gouge or scuff mark may expose the interior of the leather and give a contrasting color if the leather is not fully struck through, normal use will rarely if ever wear through the grain enamel of the leather. If wear or abrasion exposes a contrasting color, this is almost always due to the pigmented finish being a different color than the aniline dyed leather crust. Sometimes this is done purposely to achieve tonal effects. The most uniform color and wear will be achieved by leather which has been dyed and finished in the same shade. You can tell if the final pigmented finish coat is a different color than the dyed leather by examining a leather sample or patch found under the seat cushion. Just compare the pigmented surface color with the color of the opposite suede side. Some suggested methods of cleaning leather surfaces follow. We suggest that any cleaning method is always tried in a hidden area first. For spills: Wipe up excess liquid immediately with a clean cloth or sponge. If necessary use clean lukewarm water and let the leather air-dry. For spots and stains: Apply a mild, non-detergent soap solution with a clean, wet sponge. Rinse well and let air dry. Especially stubborn dirt may require a detergent solution, but care should be taken. For butter, oil or grease: Wipe the leather with a clean, dry cloth and let the remainder of the oil dissipate into the leather. Do not apply water or try to wash a grease spot. Professional cleaning services: There are specialized services that clean, condition, restore, repair and spot re-finish leather furniture in consumers' homes on a regular basis. They say that this kind of routine maintenance extends the useful life of leather upholstery; keeping it clean and in top condition. Repair of holes, cuts and burns: Although it seems unlikely; holes, cuts and burns in leather surfaces, wear and fading CAN be repaired to like-new condition by skilled leather craftsmen. ANILINE FINISH: Also known as pure aniline leather, aniline finish leather is full grain leather which has been soaked in aniline dye, but does not have any subsequent pigrrrented finish coats applied. This dye can either completely or partially penetrate the hide with color allowing the natural grain to show through. Only the best hides which are relatively free from gross surface imperfections can be made into aniline finish leather. It is soft pliable and expensive. ANTIQUED FINISH: Leather finish accomplished by hand rubbing leather with a dark dye after a lighter base coat has dried creating dramatic highlights in the finished product. ATTACHED BACK PILLOW: A pillow treatment which cannot be removed from the upholstered piece. BARREL BACK: A chair or sofa with the arms and back forming a continuous curve. BATTING: An operation performed on a hide before tanning to remove chemicals such as lime introduced in earlier hide preparation steps. BOX EDGED: A square seat front, with either welting or a sewn seam on the top and bottom. BRAND: A simple easily recognized pattern made by burning the cattle's skin with a hot iron. Used for identification purposes, brands are normally cut out of the hides and do not appear on finished furniture. BUFFING: Hides are often buffed with an abrasive wheel to minimize the appearance of gross surface imperfections such as wrinkles, parasitic damage or healed scratches in the finished product. This process makes leather more uniform, but also obliterates the natural grain and markings that makes each hide unique and naturally beautiful. BUTTON TUFTED: Buttons sewn through an upholstered surface and tied down. The placement of buttons and the resulting folds produce geometric patterns. CHESTERFIELD: An overstuffed sofa with upholstered ends, originally an English Victorian design. CHROME TANNED: Leather tanned with chromium salts resulting in a soft, mellow upholstery leather. COATED SPLIT: The lower layers which are `split off' of the top grain layer of a hide can be dyed, finished and embossed to create coated split leather. This product can be thicker and stiffer than top grain leather. Since it is also less expensive, it is often used to cover upholstered sides and backs which do not need to flex and stretch much. COIL SPRINGS: Wire coils used in quality upholstery to give a desired resiliency and firmness to the seat and back. These are often "tied" or incorporated in a "marshall unit". CORNER BLOCK: Triangular blocks which strengthen important frame joints. CORRECTED GRAIN: Top grain leather that has been buffed and sanded to minimize surface marks, then covered with pigment finish layers and embossed. CROCKING: The physical transfer by rubbing of unfixed dye or loose dyed fibers (especially in suede leather). CUSHIONS: Loose or attached cushions sit on top of the deck. The majority of cushions are made up of polyurethane foam. A "marshall unit," made up of coil springs which are sewn in pockets and then attached, down or synthetic down-like materials may be used instead of foam in some upholstery applications. Cushions are normally wrapped or capped (crowned) with a polyester, low density foam or other soft material for added surface plushness. DECK: In conventional (coil spring) constructions, layers of padding are added on top of the springs or webbing to complete the "deck" (the area under the seat cushions). In quality upholstery applications, the deck should be well padded, with no bumps or lumps. The padding should extend to the front edge of the deck, completely covering the spring edge or frame. DIAMOND TUFTING: An arrangement of tufting buttons which yields a diamond shaped pattern on the back of an upholstered piece. DOUBLE DOWELING: A construction method where two round wooden pegs are fitted into holes in two adjacent frame sections. DRUM DYED: A dying process accomplished by tumbling leather in a rotating drum to encourage the dye to penetrate fully. DYED TO SHADE (MILL DYED): A finishing system which produces essentially the same color on the suede side as the side on which the pigmented finish is applied. EMBOSS: To mechanically imprint unique grain effects under heat or high pressure in order to smooth the grain or give a unique patterned effect (ostrich, alligator, lizard, etc.). Top grain leather that has surface imperfections is often buffed smooth and then embossed to restore natural looking grain pat- terns. These are normally less expensive than full grain leathers that retain their natural markings. FALSE ANILINE FINISH: Leather which is fully coated with layers of pigment finish that provide antique or tonal effects meant to simulate true aniline finished leathers. FINISHING: To make leather more durable, clear or pigmented substances are applied to the dyed hide. These provide abrasion and stain resistance as well as color enhancement. The finishing process usually involves three or four coating operations. Generally, the more finish a leather has, the stiffer (boardier) it becomes. Semi-aniline leathers tend to be softer than heavily finished leathers, although this can largely be overcome by milling. Other factors affecting softness include the tanning formula and hide quality. FRAME: The skeleton of an upholstered piece. The frame gives structural support and determines the basic shape of any piece of upholstered furniture. If a frame is unstable, an upholstered piece will not be durable, no matter how fine or costly its design, padding, cushioning or leather cover. Quality frames are generally made of solid wood, but plywood, engineered wood products, a variety of polymers and metal are also used. Hardwood frames are usually constructed from kiln dried mixed hardwoods. White ash is a superior frame making wood. White oak, red oak and American elm are good, and hard maple and birch are acceptable. Softwoods make poor frames. Engineered wood products may look like `chipcore' but can be stronger than hardwood. They are sometimes used at critical stress areas where maximum strength is needed. Wooden frame joints are often double doweled, which means that round wooden pegs are fitted into holes in two adjacent frame sections and glued. Epoxy coated staples and gang nails are also commonly used. The gang nail is a metal plate with "saw teeth" which immobilizes the joint when it is pressed into the wood with a hydraulic press. Major joints need the additional support of corner blocks which should be glued and screwed into place. FULL GRAIN: A top grain leather which because it has not been grain corrected, has natural markings and characteristics. Animal hides are normally split into a top layer (which had hair on it) and one or more leather layers that are `split off' from the 'top grain'. The top grain layer can either be processed into 'full grain' leather which is not buffed and sanded; or into `corrected grain' leather that has had the surface markings altered by buffing and sanding. GLATT: Smooth finish. GLAZED FINISH; A Finished leather surface is polished to a high luster by glass or steel rollers under tremendous pressure. GLOVE LEATHER: Sheepskins tamed to be soft, pliable and supple. GLOVE SIDE LEATHER: This is side leather that has a garment finish which approaches that of actual glove leather, but generally has the same durability as upholstery leather. It is soft, pliable and light-weight. GRAIN: Markings or patterns on the leather surface. Naturally occurring grain is caused by wrinkles, markings and pores in the hide. Grain can also be simulated through embossing and finishing processes. HAND: The softness or `feel' of a leather. HAND TIED: Single coil springs that are attached to the welting with links and then "hand tied" to each other and the frame with twine to achieve differing amounts of elasticity in the seat. Two, four, and eight way hand ties are commonly used. The more ways the spring is tied, the harder the seat. HARDWOOD FRAMES: Frames which are made from hardwoods such as ash, oak or birch. These woods are usually kiln dried and resist splitting. HIDE: A raw or tamed pelt taken from a large, adult animal. Cattle, buffalo, sheep goat and pig hides have been used to make upholstery leather, but cattle hides are by far the most common. KNIFE EDGED: Loose or attached cushion treatment which uses a single horizontal welt or seam in the middle of the front edge of a cushion. LEATHER: A hide that has been tanned to render it resistant to decay, as well as relatively soft and pliable. LOOSE PILLOW BACK: A pillow treatment which can be removed from an upholstered piece. LOVESEAT: Double chair or small sofa. MARSHALL UNIT: Coil springs which are inserted in separate pockets and then joined together to form cushions. MATTE: Dull finish. MILLING: A natural softening process in which leather is tumbled in a drum. MINERAL TANNED: Leathers which have been tanned with any of several mineral substances, notably the salts chromium, aluminum and zirconium. MODULAR SEATING: Upholstered seating units which are easily joined to or arranged with other parts or units to form differant seating arrangements. MOTTLED FINISH: The result of blending closely related colors to achieve a spotty or splotchy appearance. NATURAL MARKINGS: The subtle markings on leather are analogous to fingerprints. They distinguish genuine leather from man-made materials. Other marks which can appear on the surface of leather are healed scratches, barbed wire marks, wrinkles, brands and insect holes. Gross imperfections are normally cut out of the finished product. Lower price leathers tend to have many more markings than premium leather. NU-BUK LEATHER: A pure aniline leather which has a slight nap, but is not suede. Nu-Buks are top grain leathers that are more durable than suede. They are aniline dyed, but since they have no pigmented top coat, they may be treated with a chemical that promotes water and stain resistance. Nu-Buk leather should be maintained by occassionally fluffing the fibers vigorously with a suede brush. A damp cloth can be used to clean spills, which can then be blotted dry. Soaps should be avoided. NUDE FINISH: A leather that is usually vat dyed, but has little or no protective top coat to prevent crocking, cracking or staining. OTTOMAN: an upholstered seat or couch usually without a back. PATINA: A luster that naturally occurs when uncoated leathers age. PIGMENT FINISH: The coloring of a hide using a coating containing opaque pigments. The use of pigment finishes insure uniformity of shade and resistance to fading as well as enhanced stain and soil resistance. PLATING: The process which smoothes the fnished surface of a leather or produces embossed surface effects. POLY DACRON WRAP: A cushion construction method in which a soft resilient polyester material is wrapped around a polyurethane core. PROTECTED ANILINE: Protected aniline leather is less expensive and more common than pure aniline or semi-aniline leather. Its coloration is more consistent and because it has been coated with protective pigments, the leather's natural markings are less noticeable. PULL-UP: When leather is pulled tight during the upholstering process it may develop areas that become lighter as they are stretched. This result is known as a pull-up. PURE ANILINE: Leather that is aniline dyed but has not been coated with pigmented finishes. It shows all the natural character and markings. SAUVAGE: A two-tone effect which adds depth to the leather. SECTIONAL: Furnituremad up of modular units capable of use seperately or in various combinations. SEMI-ANILINE DYED: Term used to describe dyed leather or clear pigmented coating (finish). It is the premium product which allows the natural character of the leather to show through. SIDE LEATHER: Grain leather which has been cut in half forming two "sides" in order to better accomodate tannery equipment and maximize the use of hides with flaws. SNUFFED: Grain leather which, in addition to hair removal, has had the outer surface lightly removed by buffing. SOAKING: One step in the processing of raw hides. Soaking restores moisture to newly received cured hides. This process involves soaking the hide in water, wetting agents and disinfectants. SPLIT: The term 'split' refers to the underneath layer of the hide which has been split off from the top grain. Splits are usually given a suede or pigment finish, embossed and used for shoes or garments. Split hides are generally thicker and stiffer than top grain leather and may be also used in less exspensive upholstered furniture aplications on back and side panels. SPLITTING & SHAVING: After hides are tanned and excess moisture removed, they are fed through a machine which cuts the hide into the valuable top grain portion and a split layer. After splitting, the hide is put through another machine which shaves it to a uniform thickness. STRUCK THROUGH: The dyeing of leather can be controlled by the manufacturer to either fully or partially penetrate it. Since full penetration requires more dye, leather that has been fully penetrated is, therefore, more costly to produce than leather that has only been superficially (the flesh and grain surfaces) penetrated. Leather that has been fully penetrated with dye is known as fully struck through leather. If it has only been superficially dyed, it is called partially struck through. SUEDE: Leather finished by buffing with an emery wheel to produce a napped surface. Suede is made from layers split off from the top grain portion of the hide. SUEDED PIGSKIN: Sueded pigskins are available in garment weight and upholstery weight. The upholstery weight is probably the most durable suede on the market. TABLE FINISHING: A full pigment finishing system applied on top of a neutral or contrasting color back. TANNING: A chemical process which converts the raw hide into a stable product. This process is often accomplished in large vats or drums. TANNING AGENTS: Today's upholstery leathers are tanned with soluble chromium sulfate. Synthetic tanning and vegetable materials derived from plants and wood (bark tanning) may also be used in combination. TEE SEAT CUSIONS: A loose seat cushion whose outside front edges extend laterally in front of the arm of an upholstered piece. THICKNESS OR WEIGHT: Measured in millimeters which, when divided by 0.4 is quoted in ounces. TIGHT SEAT: Fully upholstered seat or backdesigned not to have a cushion. TOP COAT: Synthetic transparent polyurethane resins applied as a protective coating. TOP GRAIN: Leather which contains the top portion of the hide..the part that had hair on it. The top grain portion can be processed into full grain or corrected grain leather. The top grain portion of the hide is approximately 3/64" or about the thickness of a penny. TRIMMING: Trmmming, siding and fleshing are operations performed on the hide which remove excess tissue. TUFTING: See "button tufted". UNHAIRING: After soaking hides, hair is removed. Unhairing destroys the hair root so it comes free from the hide and loosens the outer skin which covers the grain. URETHANE FOAM: Flexible polyurethane foam is used as a cushioning material in upholstered furniture seats,backs and arms. It is an extremely versatile product that can be produced to have practically any "feel" - from very firm to plush. WEBBING: Interwoven natural (or synthetic) strips that provide a foundation for many upholstered arms, backs, seats and wings. WELTING: Cord wrapped in fabric which is used to trim upholstery seams and places where the fabric meets exposed wood.